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Passive Voice

Passive sentence or passive voice are used in writing much more often than in speech, and they are used in some types of writing much more often than in others.
Passives are used more in journalism (newspapers, magazines) than in fiction (novels, stories), but most journalists and fiction writers use far more active than passive sentences. However, passives are very common in all types of scientific and technical writing. Scientific articles often contain more passive than active sentences. You should not use passive voice verbs unless you have a good reason.

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Contrastive Conjunction and Modal Perfect

Types of conjunction

Different types of conjunctions link information in different ways. It is important to know which conjunctions establish which types of links.

There are five main types of conjunction in English.

1. Conjunctions of addition and replacement

Additive conjunctions simply add more information to what is already there. Examples of additive conjunctions include:

and, also, in addition, not only … but also, moreover, further, besides.

Example

The study used a small sample only and was strongly criticized for this reason. Furthermore, the initial premise of the research was considered questionable in the light of previous evidence.

Conjunctions of replacement replace one piece of information with another. That is, they offer an alternative. Conjunctions of replacement include the words:

or, or else, alternatively.

Example

The results could be interpreted to mean that high levels of protein are beneficial to diet generally. Alternatively, they could also mean that high protein levels are only beneficial to severely overweight males.

2. Conjunctions of comparison, contrast and concession

Comparative conjunctions are used to link two ideas that are considered to be similar. Comparative conjunctions include the terms:

in the same way, likewise, just as, both… and.

Example

Reading aloud to young children stimulates their interest in books. Similarly, visiting libraries or book fairs has been shown to increase children’s readiness to engage with print.

Contrastive conjunctions link two ideas that are considered to be different. Examples of contrastive conjunctions include:

but, however, in contrast, on the contrary, instead, nevertheless, yet, still, even so, neither …nor.

Example

This evidence points clearly to a fall in the number of unemployed. On the other hand, anecdotal evidence from reputable charities suggests that the number of people seeking financial support has increased.

Concessive conjunctions are a subgroup of contrastive conjunctions. They are used to contrast one idea with another where one piece of information appears to be surprising or unexpected in view of the other idea. Examples of concessive conjunctions include:

though, although, despite, in spite of, notwithstanding, whereas, while.

Example

Even though money has been poured into literacy programs, literacy levels among 12-15 year olds do not appear to be improving.

Perfect Modal Verbs

modal verb + have + past participle

The Future Perfect Tense

Unlike all the other modals above, will is used for the future:

Subject + will + have + past participle

Singular	Plural
I will have lived	We will have lived
You will have lived	You will have lived
He will have lived
She will have lived	They will have lived
It will have lived

This is a difficult tense to use. It describes an action that will be completed in the future.

For example:

I moved to Minnesota in 1991. The year now is 2008.

By 2011, I will have lived in Minnesota for 20 years.

Direct and Indirect Speech

Direct and Indirect speech, we also known as Reported speech. Direct speech was a sentence that directly spoken by the speaker and if it was written it will use quotation marks. While Indirect speech was a sentence that we reported to others indirectly and without any commas.

Direct Speech / Quoted Speech

Saying exactly what someone has said is called direct speech (sometimes called quoted speech)

Here what a person says appears within quotation marks ("...") and should be word for word.

For example:

She said, "Today's lesson is on presentations." Or "Today's lesson is on presentations," she said.

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Discussion Text

Discussion is a text which presents a problematic discourse. This problem will

be discussed from different points of view. It presents pro and contra opinion

on certain issue. The purpose of a discussion text is to present arguments and

information from differing viewpoints.

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Narrative Text

NARRATIVE TEXT

Narrative text is a text which contains about story (fiction/non fiction/tales/folktales/fables/myths/epic) and its plot consists of climax of the story (complication) then followed by the resolution.

The narrative text short story is telling of a story or an account of a sequence of events. One of the four traditional forms of composition (along with description, exposition, and persuasion). Narration differs from exposition, which can also relate a sequence of events, in that narration need not be factual and may be written from the perspective of a character in the text.

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